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Sensors and Materials, Volume 38, Number 9(1) (2026)
Copyright(C) MYU K.K.
pp. 5121-5136
S&M4613 Research
https://doi.org/10.18494/SAM6360
Published: September 9, 2026

Analysis of Effects of Incorporating Long-term Data into the Training Set for Gait Authentication Using Insole-type Gait Sensor [PDF]

Etsushi Kumamoto, Kyosuke Fukamachi, Tomohito Yamamoto, Susumu Sato, and Takashi Kawanami

(Received April 1, 2026; Accepted July 10, 2026)

Keywords: gait authentication, insole sensor, long-term data, deep learning, continuous authentication

Gait authentication using wearable sensors has attracted attention as a promising approach for continuous authentication. However, in many existing studies, authentication models were trained only on short-term gait data collected under controlled experimental conditions, which may not reflect the diversity of gait patterns in daily life. In this study, we investigated the effect of incorporating long-term gait data collected in daily-life environments into the training dataset of a deep-learning-based gait authentication model using an insole-type gait sensor. Gait data were collected from 48 healthy participants using two measurement modes: a real-time mode for short-term data and a daily-life mode for long-term data. Two training conditions were compared: using only short-term data and using both short-term and long-term data. Authentication performance was evaluated for unseen users using the equal error rate (EER). Incorporating long-term data tended to improve the performance, reducing the average EER from 0.47 to 0.17% and the common-threshold EER from 0.71 to 0.28%. In addition, feature-space analysis using the Silhouette Score and Delta Cosine Similarity (ΔCosSim) showed improved separability of test embeddings, and SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) based analysis revealed reduced dependence on roll-angle-related parameters and increased use of toe-in/out angle and minimum toe clearance.

Corresponding author: Takashi Kawanami


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Cite this article
Etsushi Kumamoto, Kyosuke Fukamachi, Tomohito Yamamoto, Susumu Sato, and Takashi Kawanami , Analysis of Effects of Incorporating Long-term Data into the Training Set for Gait Authentication Using Insole-type Gait Sensor , Sens. Mater., Vol. 38, No. 9, 2026, p. 5121-5136.



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